Essay about Thomas Hobbes Concept of Natural Law

Thomas Hobbes’ concept of natural law is shown in his theory of the state of nature, the pre-state environment, and consists of two laws: individuals have to pursue a peaceful life, and are allowed to defend their existence by any means possible. This has particular ramifications in the formation of civil society, especially in terms of loyalty, morality and the relationship between man and the leviathan that is the state. Hobbes’ theory has two of flaws in particular – the logic in his theory of the state of nature, and the relationship he expects mankind to have with the state. Hobbes’ theory of natural law is based on the premise that individuals are atomistic, rational, self-centred, and in a perpetual state of conflict and†¦show more content†¦The only time one can withdraw consent from the state is when the state loses the capacity to defend its people, because the law of self-preservation takes precedence to the covenant (both natural laws take precedence over everything else in an individual’s life). It has been asserted that Hobbes’ idea that all men are at war and yet seek peace at the same time is contradictory . Hobbes’ idea of the way desires such as hope of escaping the state of nature and fear of one another impact the formation of civil society is incorrect, because he ignores the way these would more likely encourage a peaceful benevolence in the state of nature than a social contract for self-defence. The same causes he puts forward for war can also bring about peace , and Hobbes’ own theory of reason and the desire for peace would suggest that individuals in the state of nature would in fact establish benevolent relationships and friendships with one another, which would eventually culminate in a civil society. It would seem, then, that a joint effort in the pursuit of happiness and the common good will bring about the greatest happiness possible from the state of nature, because there is otherwise competition and selfishness which can guarantee ha ppiness for a short period at best. A possible argument to this is that the framework of such a pursuit is vulnerable to misconduct onShow MoreRelatedComparison of Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau Essay1092 Words   |  5 Pages justice, laws, and rights guided the works of the 17th and 18th century philosophical writings of Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 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While Machiavelli focused his written works on ideas related to effective governance, Hobbes attempts to explain the necessity of establishing a ruler to maintain peace and stability. Although Niccolo Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes focused on different aspects of political theory, both thinkers addressed the concept of human nature in their writtenRead MoreThomas Hobbes State of Nature in Leviathan Essay847 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to the view Thomas Hobbes presents within the selected passaged in the Leviathan, we live in a narcissistic society where man’s condition is primarily driven by ego and where the achievement of personal goals is deemed paramount. Within the State of Nature that is, outside of civil society we have a right to all things ‘even to one another’s body’, and there would be no agreed authority to ensure the moral grounds of our decisions. Therefore since there are no restrictions and no sharedRead MoreJohn Locke And The Civil War1177 Words   |  5 PagesSauter World History 15 December 2014 People over People John Adams once said, â€Å"Fear is the foundation of most governments.† Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Karl Marx all grew up in a time of war and witnessed the same events that caused them to create their idea of government. Hobbes learned that people are naturally wicked, Locke learned that people all had natural rights. Karl Marx thought that the social order did not matter. All of them concluded that their governmental plan was the mostRead MoreLegal Positivists : Legal Positivism896 Words   |  4 Pages Legal positivism offers a definition of laws as a written declaration made by government officials that have legal power to control certain aspects of society and human conduct (Himma, 2004). Legal positivist recognize all rules, regulations, principles and other forms of law that come from an authorized government body or official (Himma, 2004). But Legal positivist do not recognize laws, principles or any form of law or behavior modifier that does not come directly from an authorized government

The Negatives Of Genetic Engineering Free Essays

The term â€Å"genetic engineering† was first coined by Jack Williamson in is science fiction novel Dragon’s Island, published in 1 951 ,one year before Dona’s role in heredity was confirmed by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure, DNA stands for (desorbing cultic acid). For many years, there has been a controversy surrounding the morality of genetic modifying organisms. Some it’s unethical since it may lead to side effects such as mutation, others say it’s totally acceptable since it can make a stronger healthier and smarter organism. We will write a custom essay sample on The Negatives Of Genetic Engineering or any similar topic only for you Order Now I tryingly believe that genetic engineering should be banned for multiple reasons such as religion, morals, physical attributes and crossing species boundaries. In every country there is different religions and these religions have different views. One of these views are on genetic engineering, whether it is acceptable or not modifying genes. God created us human not perfect so why do we want to reach perfection when it is not a human trait. Other people who lack faith will tell you humans seek perfection it’s in their nature so it’s k modifying genes, but if we reached perfection what do we have to seek, we loud be perfect and lose our touch of humanity. Is genetic engineering ethical to do, children who are made with specific genes are produced for one specific reason and it is to help another person medically in other words they are made for being spare for the specific person. In my sister’s keeper a book about a girl who was a genetically modified to help her dying sister from cancer for 12 years she was used as a spare for her sister and when they wanted to take a kidney, she took matter in her own hands and sued her parents for emancipation. So it is not moral or right to bring a person just to be spare. Although other people will contradict and say that by doing so they are saving lives, but they don ;t think of the lives they are destroying . Gene modifying is not a 100% accurate, it has many mishaps one of the mishaps is a chronic disease which happened in 2001 at a reproductive facility in new jersey were thirty babies who are genetically modified and have genes of three different people, two women and a man some of these thirty children had turners syndrome and turners syndrome happens to one in very 2500 baby and in thirty babies it occurred more than twice is alarming. There people contradict that genetic modification has many benefits, like it increases polymorphism but what about mutations that occur in the children that born. Are they supposed to live with disabilities because some scientists wanted to play god. What about modifying genes to create a new species, are we ready to see a new type of species walking around with us, scientists are talking about a new kind of humans that have the outer look of humans and the abilities of animals, do we want a human tiger that may be aggressive and be a hazard to other n ormal humans? How to cite The Negatives Of Genetic Engineering, Papers

Review from a Public Health Perspective-Free-Samples for Students

Questions: 1.Update the global burden of disease due to cervical cancer using appropriate metrics. The data shown in the cases study is from 2002. 2.What is the gold standard cervical screening method in high resource settings? 3.What alternatives are there in low-resource settings? 4.How were these alternatives evaluated and what advantages are mentioned? 5.What were the requirements for the use of the new HPV-DNA test and how were these addressed? 6.List three conditions for the effective use of new cervical screening technologies. 7.List three challenges faced by the three initiatives described in this case study. 8.This case study was written in 2009. Provide an update for 2016. Answers: 1.According to the worldwide prevalence data for cervical cancer in 2012, it is the fourth most common cause of cancer in women. About 5, 28, 000 newly diagnosed cases of cervical cancer were found in the year 2012 and the high risk regions for cervical cancers included Eastern and Middle Africa. In that year, cervical cancer was responsible for 266, 000 deaths and it accounted to 7.5% death in female due to cancer. Another common trend that was seen from the data was that most of people diagnosed with cervical cancer came for lesser developed countries (Globocan.iarc.fr. 2012). In case of recent statistics on cervical cancer in Australia, in 2018, 1.5% new female cancer cases were diagnosed in 2018. It is regarded as the 14th most diagnosed cancer among females in Australia (canceraustralia.gov.au 2018). 2.Cervical cytololgy is the gold standard screening methods for screening of cervical cancer in all developed countries. It is also called Pap test or pap smear test. It is a fast and simple screening methods which involves taking cells from the cervix and sending the cell for laboratory testing. The main purpose of the cervical cytology is to examine presence of abnormal cells in smear. The method had significant impact on cervical cancer morbidity and mortality rate. However, currently more specific test called human papillomavirus (HPV) testing is also done due to the limitations of Pap smear. Pap smear is found to have low sensitivity, high false negatives rates and interobserver variability. Research study also revealed other limitations such as interobserver bias and chances of misinterpretation of results. It does not work in low resource setting too because of lack of infrastructure and highly trained personnel to examine the smear. For this reason, cytologic testing requires regular examination and follow up with patients too (Boone, Erickson and Huh 2012) 3.The alternative screening methods for cervical cancer in low resource setting includes HPV testing or visual inspection with acetic acid followed by cryotherapy. Visual inspection with acetic acid is the second option for screening when HPV testing is not available in a region. The HPV testing was identified as an alternative screening method when many barriers were found in cytology based screening low resources areas. For instance, in low resource regions like Pacific islands, people found it hard to travel to remote areas for screening. This region also lacked proper infrastructure for testing such as lack of high quality cytology system and pathology lab. Hence, screening for women with HPV testing with or without visual inspection with acetic acid was recommended by WHO. HPV testing has been found effective in reducing cervical cancer mortality and late-stage illness in studies done in India, Europe and Africa. The logistical barrier to the test can also be addressed by use of point-of-care HPV test (Elit, Ogilvie and Lee 2017). 4.Other alternatives like HPV testing has been evaluated by means of cost-effectiveness and ease of access parameters. Screening test sensitivity and population coverage were also evaluated before proposing it as an alternative option for screening in low resource setting. Primary prevention is now done with HPV testing because a trial showed that HPV was a more cost effective and sensitive method. It had sensitivity of 96%. Furthermore, combining it with other screening methods enhanced detection pre-invasive lesions. In terms of ease of testing and conducting the test, HPV was found to be a more objective and reproducible tool because it required less training for use among health care staffs. Cytology favored subjective interpretation of cervical cancer risk, however HPV offered the opportunity of automated and centralized testing. Hence, large specimen could be tested by HPV screening method (Boone, Erickson, and Huh, 2012). Therefore, HPV is most likely to emerge as a primary sc reening for cervical cancer followed by triage with other methods. 5.For implementing HPV DNA test as a screening method for cervical cancer screening, the new requirement was that the screening tools should have optimal balance between clinical sensitivity and detection of different types of lesions to minimize follow-up procedures. Hence, reliable performance of HPV testing was expected to consider it as a reliable screening method. The balance between true and false positive was achieved by changes in analytic sensitivity of the tool. Another emphasis was that HPV detection assay should comply with the clinical criteria of diagnosis. The summary of the requirement for the HPV testing assay are as follows: It should have a clinical sensitivity of about 90% It should have a clinical specificity of not less than 98% It should display intra-laboratory reproducibility (Meijer et al. 2009) Other logistic requirement for wide use of the test was done developing clinically validated and point of care HPV test. 6.Currently, the new technologies used for screening of cervical cancer include HPV diagnostics and HPV DNA testing. The three conditions that are necessary for the effectiveness of new cervical screening technologies include the following: Cost effectiveness condition based on cost of the HPV test per years and cost spent in triage methods It should be able to identify the precursor lesion that would help in curing the disease The tool should have high sensitivity and ability to rule out false positive outcome The utility condition was also important for the effectiveness of the tool (de Kok et al. 2012). 7.The three challenges faced by the initiatives described by the case study included the following: Challenges due to nature of partnership: In 2009, PATH developed a multi-pronged approach to solve the problem of poor screening programs in low resource setting. However, one of the challenges found in the initiatives were that it lacked consideration regarding factors needed to promote coordinated alliance. Although the main purpose was to improve service delivery system and implement effective prevention strategies, however this needed strong alliance. However, lack of attention to coordinated alliance was the reason for conflict of interest. Challenge related to developing technologically sound and cost effective tool: Another challenge found in implementing the initiative was the need to develop a business model that allows sale of two types of HPV tool. One for high resource setting and other for low resource setting. Challenges related to acceptance of alternative to Pap smear: Pap smear remained the gold standard tool for diagnosis. However, one challenge in the initiative to implement high quality screening program was the skeptical attitude of the medical community regarding the effectiveness of alternative options like HPV tool (Hronek 2009). 8.The case study discussed about comprehensive prevention approach implemented in 2009 like identifying sustainable alternatives to Pap and implementing various approach to improve the quality and cost effectiveness of cervical cancer screening for low resource setting. In 2016, comprehensive approach for improvement of cervical cancer has been implemented in low resource setting like Africa. The review of research and development in cervical cancer in Africa in 2016 has revealed large number of research done secondary prevention methods like screening. For example, now cancer prevention efforts include biomarkers for cervical cancer and establishing feasible approach to screen adult women in low resource setting. Some of the important factors that have been considered for feasibility of screening methods include accessibility, affordability, provider training and health care infrastructure. It has also been proposed to develop national registries to track new cased and identify new needs for prevention projects (Finocchario-Kessler et al. 2016). References: Boone, J.D., Erickson, B.K. and Huh, W.K., 2012. New insights into cervical cancer screening.Journal of gynecologic oncology,23(4), pp.282-287. canceraustralia.gov.au 2018.Cervical cancer statistics | Cervical cancer. Cervical-cancer.canceraustralia.gov.au. Retrieved 16 February 2018, from https://cervical-cancer.canceraustralia.gov.au/statistics Cost?effectiveness of cervical cancer screening: cytology versus human papillomavirus DNA testing.BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics Gynaecology,119(6), pp.699-709. de Kok, I.M., van Rosmalen, J., Dillner, J., Arbyn, M., Sasieni, P., Iftner, T. and van Ballegooijen, M., 2012. Primary screening for human papillomavirus compared with cytology screening for cervical cancer in European settings: cost effectiveness analysis based on a Dutch microsimulation model.Bmj,344, p.e670. Elit, L., Ogilvie, G. and Lee, M., 2017. Cervical Cancer Screening in Low-Resource Settings.Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada,39(12), pp.1183-1184. Finocchario-Kessler, S., Wexler, C., Maloba, M., Mabachi, N., Ndikum-Moffor, F. and Bukusi, E., 2016. Cervical cancer prevention and treatment research in Africa: a systematic review from a public health perspective.BMC women's health,16(1), p.29. Hronek, J., 2009. Case studies for Global health: building relationship. Sharing knowledge.Case studies for Global health: building relationship. Sharing knowledge. Globocan.iarc.fr. 2012. GLOBOCAN Cancer Fact Sheets: Cervical cancer. Retrieved 16 February 2018, from https://globocan.iarc.fr/old/FactSheets/cancers/cervix-new.asp Meijer, C.J., Berkhof, J., Castle, P.E., Hesselink, A.T., Franco, E.L., Ronco, G., Arbyn, M., Bosch, F.X., Cuzick, J., Dillner, J. and Heideman, D.A., 2009. Guidelines for human papillomavirus DNA test requirements for primary cervical cancer screening in women 30 years and older.International journal of cancer,124(3), pp.516-520.

The First Industry Revolution A Description of Impacts

History scholars acknowledge the first industrial revolution began in Great Britain in the second half of the eighteenth century (1760) and lasted to some time between 1820 and 1840, bringing immense transformation of the economy by shifting production from hand-manufacturing into mechanized manufacturing (Musson Robinson, 1969).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The First Industry Revolution: A Description of Impacts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This transformation dramatically changed every aspect of human life and led to new social, economic and political ideologies. The present paper describes the societal, political, geographic and economic impacts of the first industrial revolution. It is important to note that the description will sample some work and lives of key members of the Lunar Society, a provincial scientific society, because the society occupies an exceptional place in the history of the indust rial revolution as its members were involved in actively creating an intersection between pure science and advancing technology to spur and sustain the revolution (Musson Robinson, 1969). On the social front, it can be argued that the first industrial revolution not only triggered rapid urbanization, harsh labour conditions, child labour and industrial pollution which threatened both human health and the natural world, but the working class became increasingly alienated due to city life, crime levels soared, and the social fabric that used to hold people together in the rural areas nearly melted down (Musson Robinson, 1969). But these are only the negatives. It can be argued that the scientific work of Lunar Society members Samuel Galton, Jr. (ornithology and optics) Jonathan Stokes (physician and botanist) and James Keir (chemist, geologist, chemical manufacturer) brought about processes that gave rise to comprehensive increases in production capability and would affect all socie tal needs, including food production, medicine, and clothing (Schofield, 1957). The political front was impacted through: colonization of Asia and Africa by Great Britain to look for raw materials to feed the mounting industries; division of the world into two categories – the developed and the underdeveloped world; Europeanization of other countries as Europeans went across oceans to settle in foreign countries; enactment of several reform laws and Acts, including the enactment of Factory Laws in Great Britain to guarantee the health and safety of workers, and; the development of strong trade union movements to represent the needs and concerns of workers (Yavuz n.d.). Lunar Society member Thomas Day (politics and metaphysics) was influential in charting the political course of Great Britain immediately after the initiation of the industrial revolution (Schofield, 1957).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The geographic impacts are best illuminated by the rapid population explosion immediately after the initiation of the industrial revolution, which saw an overuse of scarce natural and man-made resources (e.g., land, energy, forests etc) and increased environmental pollution due to numerous waste by-products arising from the factories (Musson Robinson, 1969). These consequences are still felt today in erratic rainfall patterns, global warming, pollution-initiated respiratory diseases, and uncollected industrial garbage (Yavuz, n.d.). Extant literature demonstrates that Irish landowner and inventor Richard Lovell Edgeworth, who was a member of the Lunar Society (Schofield, 1957), demonstrated to his tenants industrious habits that could be used to optimally utilize available resources without degrading the environment (Koditschek, 2011). Lastly, on the economic front, Lunar Society members Mathew Boulton and James Watt contributed immensely towards the product ion of steam engines that were critical in transforming Britain into the world’s premier economy dominated by mechanized production and transportation (Schofield, 1957). Another Lunar member Josiah Wedgwood was influential in initiating the ceramics factories that not only employed a huge number of people, ensuring they had money to spend, but also opened overseas markets. Overall, the industrial revolution increased the production capacity for goods and services due to mechanization, created jobs for workers and assisted them to live better lives (Musson Robinson, 1969). References Koditschek, T (2011). Liberalism, imperialism, and the historical imagination: Ninetieth-century visions of a greater Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Musson, A.E., Robinson, E. (1969). Science and technology in the industrial revolution. Manchester: Butler Tanner Ltd. Schofield, R.E. (1957). The industrial orientation of science. ISIS, 48(4), 408-415. Web.Advertising We wil l write a custom essay sample on The First Industry Revolution: A Description of Impacts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Yavuz, E. (n.d.). The industrial revolution and consequences. Web. This essay on The First Industry Revolution: A Description of Impacts was written and submitted by user Jayce Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.